Communication of Respect

| Business CommunicationTrimester 2 AssignmentSubmitted By:Aksha AnandPGDM-A(2011-2013)Roll No: 06| | | | | | | | The communication of respect has been established as a significant dimension of cross-cultural communication to define and fully understand respect in cross-cultural interactions. The communication of respect can be examined and seen as a field of study. This framework is devoted to the communication of respect from both respect and communication competence. Study describes that good communication is a serious and specific study of the communication of respect. Evaluation of cross-cultural communication competence of respect across cultures in an environment where such pan-cultural communication is growing is extremely important. EXPLAINING RESPECT There are different disciplines dependent upon communication. Respect according to many researchers is both group and individually defined and oriented. It is inseparable from communication as there is no way to show respect in the absence of verbal or non-verbal communication. Also, many researchers allow respect to go undefined relying entirely on participant perception of the term. However, unlike previous views, communication of respect is a complex concept and more than merely simple politeness and courtesies. COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE- THE DIFFERENCES Cross cultural communicative competence framework developed by Ruben, has identified seven behavioural dimensions of cross cultural competence. They are * Display of respect * Interaction posture * Orientation to knowledge, Empathy * Self-oriented behaviour * Interaction management * Tolerance for ambiguity. Several years later on, it has been increased to nine dimensions by sub-dividing self-oriented behaviour into three distinct dimensions – * Task oriented roles * Relational roles * Individualistic roles. Communication of respect is heavily impacted by cultural norms. For many Koreans, respect is communicated via formality whereas for many Americans, respect is communicated in initial interacti ons by treating others equally. Sometimes due to lack of cross culture language, respect may not be effectively communicated. CONSEQUENCES OF RESPECT AND DISRESPECT Respect is very important silent feature in our communication and there are serious effects related to respect or the lack of the same. Therefore the phenomenon merits scholarly attention. Success is often dependant on being able to communicate respect and avoiding communication of disrespect. Communicating respect leads to a â€Å"social healing effect† on psychological perceptions of previously strained relationships. This article seeks not only to recognize the important work devoted to the communication of respect that has already been written, but also calls for more work to be done. THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION OF RESPECT One of the key conceptual frameworks devoted to communication of respect is presented by Van Quaquebeke (2009) which distinguishes respect from tolerance and elaborates on two distinct types f respect. Tolerance is aligned with appraisal, whereas respect is closely aligned with recognition. Appraisal respect is evaluative and focuses on a result, while recognition respect is more process focused and occurs in interaction. The author of this article emphasizes on interactional respect. From a culture general communication perspective, there are four domains of communication competence that determine how respect is communicated interpersonally.

The Acquisition And Integration Of Zanussi

The acquisition of different companies always indicates a change for both the acquiring and the acquired organisation and the people within. To successfully combine and integrate Elektrolux and Zanussi it is essential to consider both organisations ´ formal and informal structures which are heavily influenced by their culture. Culture develops on the one hand nationwide but also specifically in an organisation. Building up trust is important to develop a working informal network, which supports the formal structure. Thus positive influence is taken on the selected behaviour of people within what Breton and Wintrobe call â€Å"bureaucracies†. This behaviour is characteristically competitive, especially in such times of major change. This change should be managed step-by-step and is described by Quinn as logical incrementalism. It builds â€Å"the seeds of understanding, identity, and commitment into the very processes† (Quinn, p145) and is the underlying strategy which makes integration successful. After Elektrolux announced the acquisition of Zanussi, both organisations and people within were confronted with many changes which created tensions or misfits that called for new visions.(Normann in Quinn, p99) As a first step, mission values and guiding principles of Zanussi were made public to the employees in the Mission Statement.(Exhibit 3 in Case Study, p914) From the bottom-up they should understand step-by-step in a learning process (Normann in Quinn, p99) what behaviour was generally expected and correct. Bennis and others (in Quinn, p101) also agree that â€Å"programs to achieve significant change must be phased and largely undertaken bottom up, but the legitimacy of alternatives must be affirmed by the support of key people at the top.† Besides the new Mission Statement, education and training programmes were undertaken to diffuse the new philosophy and policy. Thus the rules for building up an effective network are made visible. This network supports the formal structure. Breton and Wintrobe also assume that â€Å"relationships between superiors and subordinates in bureaus are generally governed by exchange and trade and not by the giving of orders and directives.† Exchange can only take place, if property rights are existing and are supported by â€Å"trust† (Breton and Wintrobe, p4) Trust is essential for the functioning of networks and has to be built up incrementally. One effective way of building up trust is by making â€Å"symbolic moves† (q,111). In addition to this, the â€Å"most important changes are often those which signal a change in attitude at the top of an organisation.† (Riccardo and Cafiero in Quinn, p112). Elektrolux made extensive use of these symbolic moves. One was that Elektrolux took over several prior commitments of Zanussi, although they were considered as disadvantageous for the joint strategy (Case, p900). Right after signing the final agreement, the complete Zanussi top-management was released. Replacing only one senior manager below the top-management, Elektrolux ´s purpose was to give a clear signal of the need to change working practices. To communicate these changes, Mr. Rossignolo was seen as the perfect change agent, because he is Italian and knows the Swedish organisation culture. But he also had to build up trust with the Italians, who considered him closer to Sweden than Italy. In respond to this attitude, an external consultant was brought in. As Mr. Estes says, â€Å"you don ´t try to ram your conclusions down people†s throats. You try to persuade people what has to be done and provide confidence and leadership for them.†(Quinn, p136) By this Mr. Rossignolo set a sign that he does not want to take one party†s side, but that he is neutral and therefore he increased the Italian ´s trust in his person. According to the mission statement, Elektrolux central value is â€Å"transparency†, or openness. To integrate this in Zanussi ´s culture was one of the major tasks the Swedish had to achieve. Conflicts were part of the Italian†s daily life. Seniority and loyalty to individuals were seen as more important than competence or commitment to the company. They were also not convinced of need for change and thought financial problems were due to former owners mistakes. The Italians feared loosing their power not only to another company, but even worse to one from a foreign culture. In response to this attitude, Hans Werthen set a sign to the Italians when he said:† We are not buying companies in order to close them down, but to turn them into profitable ventures†¦ and we are not Vikings, who were Norwegians, anyway.† (Case, p901) Impressively, he demonstrated that openness is a practical part of the new culture. With the same openness, Elektrolux gained the trust of the important Unions, who have a high influence in the Italian organisation culture. Without the approval of the Unions, it would have been difficult to take over Zanussi. Openness is a general Elektrolux attitude, but as Quinn describes, there are â€Å"sound political or informational reasons for not announcing a strategy in its full pristine glory at this early stage.† Although not very glorious for the workers, it can be assumed that Elektrolux knew very well that they would have to make redundancies, because no acquisition can be made without. But as â€Å"effective change managers [they] recognise[d] the impact their incremental decisions and action patterns have on credibility [†¦] and tried to keep in mind the symbolic implications each individual act had.† (Quinn, p118) Elektrolux solved the central problem of redundancies incrementally. Their plan was to gain the trust of the Unions by promising not to make any redundancies to successfully acquire Zanussi without opposition of the Unions. Having one foot in the door, they could start making redundancies step-by-step. They took into account that their credibility would suffer negatively proportional to announced redundancies. Although this strategy was accompanied by some strikes and heavy re-negotiations, they still had reached their goal, which was to acquire Zanussi. Although the problems with the Unions had negative impact on Elektrolux reputation, generally it can be said that they effectively communicated their openness and in turn gained trust by the unions and the Italians. Therefore, building up trust is essential when integrating the two companies. Breton and Wintrobe suggest that â€Å"selective behaviour† (p6) is next to trust a second issue in organisational bureaucracy. The subordinates chose from a range of behaviour which reaches from always inefficient to always efficient. Therefore, selective behaviour is the outcome of a trading process, where the outcome is determined by the price offered by superiors for efficient informal services. As example for this serve the front-line managers and professional employees of Zanussi, which fully approved the change in the organisation and demanded a higher degree of involvement. They were rewarded with a special training programme. Building teams and task forces, positively influenced the selected behaviour of the people within the new organisation in several ways and helped to integrate both cultures. As one CEO (in Quinn, p139) said: â€Å"If good people share the same values, they will instinctively act together. We must know how people will respond intuitively when they are thousands of miles away. [†¦] If we [†¦] communicate openly, our actions will be sensible and cohesive.† As Leif Johannsson describes, they â€Å"were able to adopt a completely new way of thinking [†¦] which emerged from the discussions and recommendations of the task forces [†¦]† (Case, p908) The Italians welcomed the â€Å"exchanges, and have learnt a lot from them.† (Case, p911) And as the change agent Rossignolo said: â€Å"We adopted the Swedish work ethic.† (Case, p 907). â€Å"The selection of key people was clearly the most important single ingredient[†¦]† (Quinn, p138) and furthermore, â€Å"the power interactions among key players is important. Each player has a different level of formal authority, referent power, information control and personal credibility.† Quinn describes the process of â€Å"partial consensus† (Q132) which is achieved first within groups and then introduced into organisation. Therefore and according to the Swedish style, the top management of Zanussi was replaced and put together into teams with the Swedish top managers. It was important to build first at this level a mutual understanding, later also on other levels. With the formal meetings, the managers from both cultures were forced to communicate systematically. Later they brought lower level executives into strategic processes on a more comprehensive basis.† (Quinn, p140) This was in response to the increasing demand of the line people to get involved, and also to make them â€Å"know how we are planning to get where we are going.† (General Motors executive in Quinn, p140). Looking more specific at the strategy in selecting the key personnel and the distribution of power in the organisation leads to what Breton and Wintrobe call the â€Å"bureaucratic competition† (p8). They describe competition within and between bureaus and also for network ties as characteristically for organisations. As example for the notion of competition serves the problem which arouse with the middle management. According to the Swedish acquisition style, the top management is replaced, but the middle management kept. Zanussi ´s acquisition strategy is exactly the opposite. Being accustomed to an authoritarian style, the Italians had to adopt Elektrolux ´ democratic and decentralised decision making policy. The lower management appreciated the new possibilities of promotion and therefore demanded higher involvement. They are like the top-management at the end of the organisational hierarchy and can only gain influence. The top-management, naturally to their competition for control, appreciated that they had not â€Å"a single Swedish manager imposed on top.† Whereas the middle management feared the loss of control over their subordinates and property rights. To trigger the competition in the middle management, Elektrolux established direct communication between the top managers and the front-line managers, by-passing the middle management when necessary. Plus, they launched the special training programmes for them. Again, they wanted to set a signal and to stimulate the middle managers ´ competition for membership in networks. At the end of the Case Study (p 911), a senior manager of Zanussi was concerned, that the middle management may be more bureaucratic and less open† and that they â€Å"must develop bridges at the middle and [he frankly does] not know how easy or difficult that may be.† The middle managers felt threatened by the change and the by-passing enforced this feeling. It is difficult to build up trust in such a position. Therefore to â€Å"avoid undercutting intermediate managers, such bypassing must [†¦] be limited to information gathering, with no implication that orders or approvals are given directly to lower levels. [†¦] Line managers are less tempted to screen information when they know bypass channels are operating.† (Q, p106) As described in the case and mentioned before, â€Å"lower levels are also stimulated by the possibility that they may be able to â€Å"talk to the very top†Ã¢â‚¬  (Q, p106), which can be seen as positive integration effect of the by-passing strategy. As second example, the longstanding competition between Elektolux and Zanussi in the sales and marketing division conjured several integration problems in the common organisation. Both sides were unsatisfied with the new strategy in this sector which attacked the power position of the managers. It can be argued that the change of power structure was to quickly and normally â€Å"major strategic changes tended to take many years to accomplish.†. (Q, p133) Psychological commitment of and control over the sales and management departments were not advanced enough to integrate the strategy. â€Å"There [are] too many unknowables in the total environment for managers to program or control† (Quinn, p121) To respond to such unforeseen issues, which can arise internally or externally, the firm has to remain flexible. (according to Quinn, p122). Elektrolux responded to the question of flexibility with a small corportate headquarter, decentralised subsidiaries, few hierarchy levels and task forces. As there is no â€Å"standard method for treating acquisitions† (Case, p896) it allows Elektrolux to respond to the individual circumstances in Zanussi very effectively. As conclusion can be said, that the successful integration of the Swedish and Italian cultures has to be undertaken incrementally. Trust and openess are the key for gaining a mutual understanding and commitment to the joint company. With team working, symbolic actions and extensive communication it is possible to integrate not only the organisations but also the individuals. All this helps to build up a network, which supports the formal structure. Mr. Rossignolo ´s statement that the Italians † adopted the Swedish work ethic† (Case, p907) is similar to Leif Johansson ´s, who said that the Swedish â€Å"adopted a completely new way of thinking.† (Case, p908) and shows that the merger of Elektrolux and Zanussi was in respect of culture and exchange successfully.

Analyse the portrayal of the character of Mercutio as the vehicle of Shakespeare's tragic outcome in the play 'Romeo and Juliet'

Analyse the portrayal of the character of Mercutio as the vehicle of Shakespeares tragic outcome in the play Romeo and Juliet Essay Of all of Shakespeares tragedies Romeo and Juliet is perhaps the best known one, Shakespeare based much of his play on the reality of his time by managing to encompass much of his context in the play. This was the Elizabethan era, In the Elizabethan era it was very different in the way we live our lives today. In how there were different class structures and people were treated differently and judged differently depending on which class they fell in. There was religious and politic conflict. The religious conflict was where the hate between Christians, there were two main factions of the Christian, Protestants and The Catholics, Queen Elizabeth the 1st was the head of the Church of England (which the protestants followed) and anyone found out to be a Catholic or practising the Catholic faith would have to change to The Church of England. Mercutio is Romeos best friend. Mercutio is first introduced to us in Act 1, Scene 4. It is the scene preceding the ball. At this point, the audience are aware of Romeos feelings for Rosaline, there Mercutios point view is easy to understand. In speaking to his friend, Mercutio reveals a wit and a strong sense of confidence in himself. He acts the part of Romeos advisor, implying that Mercutio is somewhat older; more level headed than Romeo and has superior intelligence. He also prompts Romeo to stop being a wimp as such and to be more confident and pro-active rather than passive and to wallow in himself and his adolescent thoughts and fantasies. By telling Romeo that, you are a lover, borrow Cupids wings and soar with them above a common bound. (Act 1, scene 4, line 15.) Mercutio encourages, but not enforcing his opinion on Romeo, just to teach him to be the master of his own destiny and not let fate decide a path for you and to do nothing about it. Mercutio wishes for Romeo to take control and aspire something more special than a common relationship. The theme of fate and destiny can be linked to Romeo and Juliets love for one another because they believe fate brought them together and it was their destiny to be together, but because of their families differences their fate was chosen for them before they even met. The whole aura circulating the Queen Mab is a warning to Romeo. When Romeo says I dreamt a dream tonight and Mercutio replying with And so did I Romeo asks Well what was yours? and Mercutio finishes Romeos question by saying that dreamers often lie. (Act 1, Scene 4). Mercutio is warning Romeo that dreams are of nothing and should be thought of as nothing. This theme of dreams runs/flows throughout the whole play. Mercutio is implicit and bluntly a fundamentalist which goes back to the Puritans of the time. In spite of this, Romeo continues to ponder, question and dabble in love, lust and fickle fantasies. Mercutio has a large impact on the people around him, for example Romeo, Benvolio, etc. He is a leader and wins his way over by being a joker and gets his point across by jokes, Romeo and Benvolios ways of showing that they agree is through their response, usually in laughter. Mercutio has to use Jokes because that is the only way his friends will understand, Mercutio is far too int elligent and most of the time the likes of Romeo and Benvolio do not understand what he is trying to illustrate. READ: The relationship between Juliet and the nurse is a better example of the mother-daughter relationship than that of Juliet and Lady Capulet EssayIn the Queen Mab speech (Act 1, scene 4) Mercutio leads into warning Romeo that Dreams are fantasies which are neither realistic nor real. Queen Mab is the Celtic Queen of Dreams, Mercutio describes who she is and what she is about, the way he does this is how unrealistic she is when he says such things like her chariot it an empty hazel-nut. Mercutio then goes on trying to show Romeo what Queen Mab and dreams can bring about, which are unlikely dreams in unrealistic, impossible situations. Mercutio sarcastically mocks Romeos dreams because he sees Romeo as immature and wants Romeo to learn from Mercutios experiences and mistakes. By Romeo saying thou talkst of nothing Shakespeare reveals Romeos lack of understanding and immaturity, and when replying to Romeo True, I talk of dreams, again Mercutio will not let it go that he knows what is true here that Romeos dreams are of nothingness. Mercutio is upset that Romeo has not listened to a word that he said to him, Mercutio originally thinks that he must have gone home, listened to him a gotten over his infatuation, not only would this satisfy Mercutios ego as the dominant male of the group, but it would have helped his best friend. Mercutio asks Benvolio what has Romeo drifted to, Benvolio tells Mercutio that he climbed over the Capulet wall. Mercutio is disappointed with him disappearing. Mercutio is elder, more experienced and is a brother figure, so he is disappointed with Romeo still keeping secrets, hiding and that he still has not got over his childish dreams and blind fantasies, but here is a use of a dramatic device where the audience know something that a character does not, this adds a hint of excitement and for the more intelligent ones of the audience a perspective or a look in at something bad that may happen. In the fight scene (Act 3, Scene 4) Benvolios statement I pray thee, good Mercutio, lets retire. The day is hot, the Capels are abroad and if we meet, we shall not scape a brawl, for now these hot days, is the mad blood stirring. (Act 3, Scene 1, Line 2-5) this Implies whenever the Capulets and the Montagues meet they cannot escape a fight and how Benvoilo (the peace keeper) is begging Mercutio and desperate not to fight he is tired of the on going feud, we can empathise with him because what he asks of Mercutio is ignored with a sarcastic comment, once again the Montagues and Mercutios are slaves to war. This is the final time we see Mercutio. Mercutio was aware that Tybalt was ready for a fight this did not bother Mercutio in the slightest. Tybalt wants to fight with Romeo, but Mercutio is willing to replace him and risk his own life for Romeo because without a doubt Mercutio believes Romeo shall lose. Mercutio is confident and ready so he fights. Tybalt does not know (like everyone else) the reason Romeo will not fight is because he sees Tybalt as a family member now, I think this is an example of collapsed stereotype because they hated each other (Tybalt and Romeo) and now Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt because he sees him as not an enemy anymore. In the fight Mercutio is injured by Tybalt and claims it to be just a scratch as usual Mercutio plays the jester character and lives up to protecting his friends, because they neither see nor feel Mercutios pain so Mercutio thinks what they dont know cannot hurt them. Mercutio implies he will be dead the next day in his line look for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man (Act 3, Scene 1, line 99). With Mercutios dying breath he calls a plague on both you houses he does this three times, in the Elizabethan Era a word spoken on a mans dying breath was to become true, (like fate/destiny) he says this three times another superstition in those times. He wanted the feud to end but he had to die in the middle of it even though he was not a member to either houses. Romeo felt guilty and responsible in a way for Mercutios death for not fighting Tybalt and feels he must avenge his friend if he wants to be worthy as a man, to himself and not a coward as we have seen before. It is extrem ely ironic that The Prince a relative of Mercutio warned them of might happen and that Mercutio had to die to make it clear to them. READ: Thesis Statement For Romeo And Juliet EssayIn Conclusion to the question Analyse the portrayal of the character of Mercutio as the vehicle of Shakespeares tragic outcome in the play Romeo and Juliet . The audience always sees Mercutio at key scenes in the play, like an implication that he fuels the key scenes and sets them off. We see him at the ball when Romeo forgets about Rosaline and finds Juliet. He arrives just before the nurse arranges the marriage like he was there to show that the wedding should not happen like a fairy god-mother to Romeo to help him out in his situations of need and to give Romeo the hints which are like subliminal signs hidden throughout the play. The final time he is seen is at the fight scene where he is killed and calls the curse which creeps through the play right to the end where both Romeo and Juliet Commit suicide. The foolishness, pure stupidity and simple ignorance of the two houses leads to the death of a person who was neutral to the feud , did not agree with it and got caught up in the middle of it. The Prince banished Romeo which was a more like a punishment for Mercutios death rather than Tybalts which put more guilt on Romeo and because Romeo and Juliet were apart they needed to create a plan, the plan failed which lead to both their deaths. Mercutio was the vehicle for the tragic outcome of the play. He influenced and impacted on key events by ironically appearing before key moments. He contributed to helping the play move by enforcing and encouraging Romeo to go to the ball where he inevitably met Juliet. If Mercutio was not in the play there would be no story because he drove the play to where it needed to be and where it went, ended up, but when he had gone this lead to Romeo and Juliets deaths. Mercutio was one of the Main Characters if not Romeo and Juliet. He entertained the audience with his intelligent wit and sarcastic humour, Shakespeare uses him as the vehicle to show how someone innocent can die over a petty and meaningless feud.

No Child Left Behind Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

No Child Left Behind - Research Paper Example †¢ Teachers are either inadequately skilled or lack the motivation to inspire students to higher levels of learning. †¢ Local communities, school board members, and superintendents do not know what their students should be learning or to what degree they should be learning it. †¢ Accountability through testing will pressure the system to improve. (Ramirez: 205) Thus, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was signed into law in January, 2002 to replace the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). The NCLB upholds four main principles that envisions the following outcomes: (1) stronger accountability for student academic performance, i.e., tougher state standards for students; (2) increased flexibility and local control over school operations i.e., flexibility in the way states spend federal dollars; (3) expanded school choice options for parents, i.e., parental choice in those schools labeled as ‘chronically’ failing schools; and (4) an emphasis on effective teaching methods, i.e., focusing resources in proven ‘research-based’ approaches (Gibbons and Paige as cited in Gardiner, Canfield-Davis & Anderson: 143). In an effort to raise the standard of education in the United States, the NCLB required public schools to test all third and eighth-grade students annually in Reading and Mathematics and to sort test results by race, socioeconomic status, disability and English proficiency. This is to identify where achievement gaps are prevalent. NCLB targets the end of the 2013-2014 schoolyear to have all students become proficient in both Reading and Math (Ravitch: 5). Consequences for schools that do not show progress towards NCLB’s goals of 100% proficiency in all groups identified (racial, economic, ability and English proficiency groups) are stringent. If the school continues to fail to make its â€Å"adequate yearly progress† (AYP) for any group, their students are given an option to either leave the s chool or enroll elsewhere. On its third year of failure, the students are entitled to free tutorial sessions after school hours. If in the following years, the school still continues to fare poorly, then government may convert it into one run by private management or turn the school into a chartered school, dismissing all its staff and turning it over to the state (Ravitch: 5). Thus far, NCLB has provided disappointing results, earning the criticism of many. In 2009, Ravitch reports that the latest release of scores from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) showed no evidence of the effectiveness of NCLB because no significant improvement was noticed in the scores. Achievement gaps between groups of students were still maintained. U.S. students scored well behind their international counterparts in Asian countries. Math and Science scores improved since these were the subjects emphasized by the curriculum in preparation for the national tests, however, Science scor es lagged behind. This proves that since NCLB only considered Math and English as the basic subjects that students needed to be proficient in, it has neglected to give attention to non-tested subjects such as Science, History, Civics, the Arts and geography (Ravitch:5) Achievement gaps still persist notwithstanding NCLB’s mandate to upgrade educational standards for all students. Finkel (n.pag) analyses why Black students still get left behind their white peers in achievement rates, blaming it on hostile and alienating environments.

Superstition vs Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Superstition vs Religion - Essay Example In previous times, culture was often seen in terms of opposition to nature. However, more recently the field of anthropology has tended to hold the view that in fact culture is nature. Therefore anthropologists have begun to shift their attentions away from an etic type comparison (an outsider's view) of cultures - in search of some kind of universal rule of cultural development - towards a more emic type (an insider's view) of approach that focuses on understanding aspects of culture in that particular culture's own terms. In other words, their focus is on a kind of 'cultural relativism' (1). Therefore, during the first part of this essay I will concentrate on an emic view of superstition and religion whilst examining examples of each. I will then go on to attempt an outline of the differences and similarities between the two before drawing conclusions on their continued importance to today's world. Superstition can be loosely defined as the belief in ideas that are not founded in e ither knowledge or reason. From an outsider's position, the term is often used in a somewhat derogative manner, referring to it in terms such as 'old wives tales'. Nonetheless, many superstitious practices date back to a pre-religious era and many people from various cultures still firmly believe that events can be predicted, often 2 based on the outcomes of previous events. For cultures steeped in superstitional practice, nothing has a 'natural cause' as such. Indeed every event was the work of spirits. These spirits could punish or reward, ruin or save the individuals of peoples. Let us take the example of the ritual practices and beliefs of the Azande tribe. If we were to study these practices from an etic standpoint, using techniques of ethnography for example, we could effectively explain every outcome in terms that would be outside the understanding of this tribe, but to us would effectively prove that the rain dance this tribe performs had no effect on the rain. However, at t he same time the peoples of this tribe could also effectively show that, if carried out correctly, this ritual could indeed affect the outcome of the rain. Here we have an example of cultural relativism. The practice of astrology is another area that falls into the category of superstition, simply because despite practitioners' attempts to tie the practice to precise mathematical formulas, it is not strictly based on scientific truths. However, proponents of astrology – including the areas of horoscope and Tarot readings – would claim the validity of the practice simply because of its long history. In fact, the use of horoscopes was first recorded in Ancient Mesopotamia where they were used to predict affairs of the state, while they became more individual-focused in Ancient Greece. So that is a basic outline of superstition, let us now take a closer look at religion. Religion has, in fact, historically been defined in various different (and often overlapping) ways. Mo reover, some definitions appear to be relatively broad whilst 3 others are somewhat narrower. For Example, the American theologian, Vergilius Ferm spoke of religion in terms of " effecting in some way†¦a vital adjustment to whatever is reacted to or regarded implicitly or explicitly as worthy of serious and ulterior concern" (qtd in Sweetman 4). More morally minded was the philosopher William James who spoke of religion as "a belief there is an unseen order, and that our supreme good lies in harmoniously adjusting ourselves thereto" (qtd in Sweetman 5). Thus, we see it is difficult to define religion in precise terms; however, we

Case Study-Ethical Decisions Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

-Ethical Decisions - Case Study Example As Crank (2003, pp. 329-331) points out, the first point of ethical formalism is that one should act in such a way that the behavior could be considered as universal. Now it becomes evident that it is not possible for Robert to further relax the parole criteria as he is convinced that further relaxation will result in the release of potentially dangerous criminals. So a further relaxation is not the right way because releasing dangerous criminals in order to empty correctional facilities is not a universally acceptable principle. The second principle is that one should not treat others as a means to an end. In this particular case it becomes evident that Robert and his parole board are being utilized by the government as a means to an end, thus, the act is unethical; the government tries to reduce overcrowding in prisons by forcing Robert to take unethical steps. If Robert decides to relax parole criteria trying to empty prisons, he will use the general public as a means to meet his own end. It is obviously so because in the case of further relaxation of the parole criteria the safety of public is compromised. The third principle is that one is free to choose how to behave and his autonomous behavior is to be independently judged on basis of Ethics and Moral Codes. In this case one can see that Robert will not decide to relax parole criteria if he takes a decision independently as he is sure that such a step will negatively affect public safety. So an autonomous action in this case would result in a decision not to relax the criteria. Admittedly, the responsibility of the parole board is to make judgments about the suitability of prisoners for their coming back to society. If this is the...Thus, the benefits of taking a decision to release inmates for community-based work on the ground of security guess work are plenty. First of all, it satisfies the existing security officers as they feel that William can protect their security and dignity. That means they wil l not take unnecessary leaves because of the perceived threat for their lives; firstly, due to the reduced inmate population and, secondly, due to th...

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Management - Essay Example Strategically, a firm that has a monopoly wants to keep any competitors from entering the market and can do so through force, lobbying, or collusion. A firm that owns a monopoly wants to keep other companies out of the market so they can set the price of the product in order to maximize profit. In monopolistic competition, the price that other firms set for the product is not as much of a concern for the firm strategically because there is product as well as brand differentiation. Therefore a firm can set its price without being influenced too much by competitors. In the long run, monopolistic competition becomes more and more like perfect competition. In an oligopoly, strategic decisions made by a firm are heavily influence by competitors because there are only a few sellers who control the market. A firm in this market structure often uses the same tactics as a firm who has a monopoly on the market to maintain or increase market share. Competition is fierce in this type of market w hich leads to lower prices and higher production. 2. Economic Factors If a firm believes that the benefits of entering or exiting a market outweigh the costs, their desire to do so will increase. Some economic factors that affect a firm’s desire to enter and exit a market are market growth, profit sustainability of that market over time, industry life cycle considerations, technological opportunities, barriers to market entry, and the number of competitors in the market. A growing market is more appealing to new entrants as is a market where growth does not appear to be slowing down any time soon. On the other hand, a declining market where there is no growth on the horizon is conducive to exiting. A market where product innovation is high also indicates that it is profitable to enter that market, whereas a market where product innovation has pretty much run its course is not a positive sign. Also, a â€Å"first-mover† has a better chance of making a substantial profit as opposed to someone who is trying to enter a market that has been around for a long time. Therefore, new markets are a good signal that entry will be profitable. Barriers to entry, such as the financial cost of entry, also discourage entry into a market. Conversely, the costs of exiting a market can discourage a firm from exit. As an example, Amazon.com entered the book selling market because they knew they could offer more books online than other bookstores could at brick and mortar stores. They entered the growing market of e-commerce and although it took them a while to turn a profit, they are now one of the most profitable e-commerce bookstores and also offer a wide variety of products now besides just books. As the e-commerce industry has grown, Amazon.com has grown as well. 3. Barring Entry In the internet marketing world, barriers to entry are relatively low. Basically anyone can learn about e-marketing and look for clients who need help with increasing their rank in searc h engines and so forth. However, it seems that larger companies in this industry have greater economies of scale. This is because they can generally produce more content, links, social media, and so on in order to generate more traffic than a very small internet marketing company with only a few people can. There are relatively low benefits in attempting to bar someone from entering this industry because it tends toward perfect competition where there are low barriers to entry and relatively low start-up costs. So the best way to

Organizational Research and Theory Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Organizational and Theory - Research Paper Example Hence this remains a pivotal understanding that environments do shape up the organizations and vice versa (organizations shaping environments) because these are inter-linked and bring the value that is envisaged from their domains. What is even more interesting here is the fact that the organizational environment is the embodiment of how an organization would try to inculcate its culture amongst the people who work within its folds and the ones who are externally linked with it, i.e. the stakeholders, customers and the third party middlemen. Thus there is immense linkage happening at different perspectives and positions. In this paper, an effort has been made to comprehend how the organizational environment brings value and how both the organizations and the environments shape up each other, while discussing the basis of coalitions and their pertinent contexts. Also professional understanding of the issues that explain the basis of the organizations and the reason as to how these org anizations are strategically related with their environments is made note of. Managing the organizational change and the transformation processes are deemed as very significant for gaining an understanding that is related with the organizational environments. If these change elements are not producing the value quotient that is expected out of them, then this could mean serious issues coming to the reckoning of all and sundry. If however these change elements are shaping up the organizational environments then this is a totally unique and different matter altogether. What remains to be seen is how the change discussions center on the organizational environments and what are the aftereffects of the changing scenarios that are taking place within an organizational context (Macher, 2009). If the company believes in manifesting change but not in drawing up an environment which is true to its employees and indeed the entire organization, then this would mean merely working towards changi ng but not properly bringing in any successful areas within the change premise of the organizational environments. If however the change is in-depth and has a long-lasting value and ramification for the organizational environment, then this change has happened for the wellness of the company and it must be appreciated across the board. The need is to remain one step ahead and be proactive about the dealings of the organizational environments so that change is a vital element and not something that happens on its own. Organizational change is indeed the changing over or transformation of cultural and social values as well as the human linkages over a period of time. This time duration usually depends upon a host of factors which essentially makes up the organizational change in essence. They key features of the organizational change are that it takes place on a constant basis and is proactive for most of its undertaking. It is brought forward by an organizational intent yet its plann ing phases are not decided by anyone. Within an organizational context, the environment is very important because it is the environment itself that shapes up actions and behaviors on part of both the employees and the top management realms in the organization. If the environment

Raising money and funding Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Raising money and funding - Assignment Example Financial steps to reduce chances of business failure include ensuring that the business maintains ploughed back profits, good relations with creditors and suppliers, as well as improving entrepreneurial skills (Feinleib, 2011). The factors outlined guard the new business from problems related to inadequate finances and expertise. In addition, a business plan may help foresee potential failure in business. A business plan is a statement that stipulates the business goals, an evaluation of internal and external business environments, and a plan on the means of attaining goals. The core elements of a complete business plan include the goals of the firm, its background information, means of achieving the goals, financial analysis, opportunities, and threats facing the firm, and the exit strategy (Feinleib, 2011). Sources of funding for business owners include personal savings, donations from family and friends, bank loans, as well as venture capital. The sources are mainly essential for new businesses as a preventive measure against failure. Because banks may not offer unsecured loans, effective strategies of securing funding include using equity funding where the firm offers to sell part of its value to investors who become shareholders to the firm. In addition, venture capital is preferred, in which case the venture capitalist firm owns part of the firm and shares in its profits upon providing startup

Anthropocene Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Anthropocene - Essay Example uction as one of the many activities that human beings involve themselves in on earth has also contributed to the many changes that has been experienced on earth over the last 200 years. For example, in most construction, cement is always used. Studies have proved that the use of cement leads to omission of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. A single tone of cement is believed to have the ability of producing a huge amount of carbon dioxide. Carbon emission is the highest contributor to global warming (Zalasiewicz, Williams, Smith, Barry, Coe, Bown & Stone, 2008). Over the last 200 years, it can be noticed that human construction activities have highly increased. There are more people undertaking construction using cement in the modern world as compared to 200 years ago. The mining of substances such as limestone for the manufacture of cement is also believed to have interfered with the earth’s topography in the last 200 years. A look at the places where mining of limestone tak es place will surely prove the effect of the mining to the land’s topography. There has been a great transformation of the earth’s surface over the last 200 years. Most of the cities that are well known in the modern world were not there some 200 years ago. In short, it can be said that cities and human settlements are the dominants of the landscape. All these are attributed to the construction activities that human beings have involved themselves in the last 200 years. In the process of building new cities and human settlements, it is evident that human beings were doing away with the natural vegetation that was covering the earth at that moment. Apart from the natural vegetation there were also the inhabitants of the natural vegetation who had to be displaced as a result of such developments (Smith & Zeder, 2013). The displaced animals had either to adapt to a new kind of life or end up being distinct. The clearing of natural vegetation has also led to an increase in global

The development of an individual Essay Example for Free

The development of an individual Essay Income, money is always a problem when theres not enough of it, Money will always have an impact on peoples lives, In the UK there are millions of people still living in poverty, even with all the benefit schemes in place. Physically: Adults with a low with a low income may be slightly more overweight than someone with a higher income due to the fact that they cannot spend money on gyms, healthy foods and so on, if they have children theyre most likely to follow the same way. Its been proven that those who live in poorer areas dont live as long. Intellectually: With the education today (mainly universities) prices are increasing largely. Those who are the lower class wont benefit as much as those whom are in the higher class. This includes both teenagers and adults. Emotionally: Not bringing in a lot of money can affect you seriously; it can make you depressed, worried, sad, it may also make you lose motivation instead of gaining it. Being an adult you have larger responsibilities than a teenager, Adults with a family have to support each person within that family and with a low income this can become impossible. Socially: Younger people will find it harder in these areas due to the appearance the present and it may end up in conflict towards society i. e. gangs, robberies, drug dealing and so on. Where as adults have the whole financial problems on the shoulders. No matter what they do theyll always be stuck for money, which then also impacts their childrens lives. Nutrition and dietary choices, its always in the media; telling us how to look; what to eat; what to wear, but who said people have to look a certain way, I agree yes that if you are overweight youre cutting your years shorter however theres people out there that are that perfect Size-Zero who may smoke or drink excessive amount of alcohol which probably shortens your life even more. Physically: Both adults and teenagers may be able to do more things such as sports and so on. If an adult smokes or drinks they are lowering the lung capacity and heightening the risk of cancer. Intellectually: It may persuade you to go to work or get a job in the first place, due to you mood and how much you like to socialise with people. Most people who are doing more manual jobs are more likely to smoke rather than those who work in offices and so on. Emotionally: Diets arent all that bad; they can improve your moods and make you feel great about yourself, but they can also do the opposite if you cant lose the weight that you want to. Adults and teenagers are getting similar in terms of dieting, most adult want to look good and teenagers are now starting to read the media and become anxious about how they look. Socially: You may also socialise a lot more than usual as well especially if you go to gyms on a regular basis, youre bound to meet new people and make friends. Even though its bad for your health, smokers are more likely to meet new people due to the smoking ban and having to go outside.

UC Students Essay Example for Free

UC Students Essay In this challenging era of competitiveness, survival and management of human beings has become a very difficult job to accomplish. The situation gets even worse when the individuals residing in any country does not have proper education and skills to keep them moving in the rough and resistive environment of competition and inflation. Therefore, in order to accentuate that management (Hancock Tyler, 2009) can be applied any situation we see that good and high quality education serves as the savior for the human beings around the world. No one can deny to the economic, social, moral and personal benefits quality education brings to human life as the fruits it bears are so unavoidable and obvious (McMahon, 2009). However, with every ray of light there comes its shadow as well and same is the case for good quality education. Though it renders unimaginable benefits and positive results towards students all over the world but on the other hand, like every good thing in this world it has a price that not many students across the globe can afford. This is the reason that most of the students that avail higher education at universities around the world works real hard in order to make both their hands meet and bear their personal as well as educational expenses. MANAGEMENT FUNCTION TO BE APPLIED The four basic functions of management are to plan, organize, direct and control (Nelson Economy, 2010). These functions fit well into the situation discussed in this essay. PROBLEM BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT Most of the universities around the world offer the flexible semester and convenient term system in order to allow the students to make the most of their time with greater feasibility coming from the perspective of course and curriculum. Usually the universities or higher educational institutes follow the practice of having or offering the biannual system or the two-semester system for one academic year to its national and international students. The first semester starts with the academic year and usually ends before the summer whereas the second semester starts after summer and ends in the month of November or more precisely in the mid of November (Colleges, 2009). These summer and winter breaks plays a very important role in helping the campus students in carrying on their studies as the students perform part time jobs and services in order to make money for paying the price of the quality education they are getting. The paper deals with the common problem on which the concept of management can be applied effectively (Rudra, 2009). This practice is true for the students of University of Canberra as well. However, a recent happening has given much rise to panic and anguish against the administration of Canberra University. This recent development accredited for creating uneasiness among the students of university is due to the fact that the university administration and the management board has decided to follow the practice of having three terms or semesters in one academic year instead of having twice an academic year.The university spokesperson says that these settings would be applied to all the national and international students studying in all departments of the university. RESPONSE TO THE DEVELOPMENT In response to this important and critical development, two contrary and opposing viewpoints have appeared. First viewpoint is that of the universities authorities, board of management and pupil in favor of this development. They belong to the school of thought that this development is in favor of students when viewed from their studies point of view, aspect of the quality of education they avail and their development of their skills and talents. The reason behind this statement is the fact that due to the three terms per academic year the students would be having ample time to continue their research work without any difficulty. According to this school of thought, the students have suffered a lot in terms of their research work as they could not manage to do research work up to the standards as recommended by research institutions. Therefore, practicing the three term practice per academic year is favorable and beneficial for the students and it is in best interest of their future (University of Western Australia, 2010). This reflects the concern of university management in the best interest of students. However, the other consideration in this matter is that of students who do different jobs in summer vacations as to carry on their studies and bear the educational expenses of the students. Though this is very alarming situation for many of the university students but in order to raise the standards of the research work carried out by university, it is important to implement this new development. CONCLUSION The essay concludes with the fact that the concepts of management can be applied anywhere in the world (Caproni, 2004), it can refer to any situation and can deal with the worst situation in a very logical and effective manner. Therefore, it is used not only in context of business but is also applied to the everyday life. Bibliography Caproni, P. J. (2004). Management Skills for Every Day Life: the practical coach. Pearsen Prentice Hall. Colleges, I. D. (2009). Australian Universities.Pennsylvania State University. Hancock, P. , Tyler, M. (2009). The Management of Every Day Life. Palgrave Macmillan. McMahon, W. W. (2009). Higher Learning, Greater Good: The Benefits of Higher Education. JHU Press. Nelson, B. , Economy, P. (2010). Managing for Dummies. Wiley-IEEE. Rudra, N. (2009, August 22). The Canberra Times. Canberra, Australia. University of Western Australia, D. o. (2010). Education Research and Perspectives. Department of Education, University of Western Australia.

Psychometrics in the Construction Industry

Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.† 1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry† 1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research† 2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.† Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.† Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.† Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job  then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably.   Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants.   If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative.   In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.   In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.† 1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry† 1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research† 2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.† Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.† Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.† Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job  then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably.   Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants.   If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative.   In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.   In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by